APA 101.6: Text Rules

Synopsis: Text rules are instructions for formatting portions of text. These sometimes merge with standard English usage. Abbreviations and emphasis (use of italics and quotes to highlight words), the presentation and editing of quotations, and text presentation (typeface, fonts, and character spacing), all follow instructions in the APA Manual (2001) that merit attention.

Acronym. A word formed from the first (or first few) letters of a word---NASA, Radar---and pronounced as a word.

Block quote. Any direct quote of 40 words or more is set as a block of text, the entire block indented from the left margin. In final manuscripts the block is single-spaced within, double-spaced before and after.

Initialism. The Chicago Manual of Style term for abbreviations pronounced as initials: APA, FBI (2003, p.558).

Contraction. This is the term Chicago prefers for common abbreviations: abbr. (abbreviation), chap. (chapter).

Latin abbreviation. Abbreviated Latin words used in research writing: e.g. (exempli gratia, for example), i.e. (id est, that is), etc.

APA Editorial Style: Selected Text Rules

"When editors or typesetters refer to style, they usually do not mean writing style; they mean editorial style---the rules or guidelines a publisher observes to ensure clear, consistent presentation of the printed word. Editorial style concerns uniform use of punctuation and abbreviations, construction of tables, selection of headings, and citation of references, as well as many other elements that are part of every manuscript" (APA, 2001, p. 77).

Editorial style, text rules, includes such things as capitalization and hyphenation---subjects where it is difficult to draw a firm line between APA style and conventional usage---as well as documentation and page formatting. The boundary is made more fuzzy by nuanced inconsistencies. The first two sections in this lesson present instructions that are not unique to APA stye. The third restates an APA rule presented in lesson 4. When you get these wrong the mistakes are glaringly obvious to knowledgeable readers, so they merit attention. Text rules for numbers and statistics are the subjects of the next lesson, lesson 7.

6.1. Abbreviations & Emphasis

These two subjects are lumped together because they share the same "first-time" rule. That is, acronyms and emphasis rules are applied at the first usage, thereafter the acronym or word emphasized is continued in plain text (subject to an exception for clarity).

Abbreviations: Acronyms & Contractions

Common contractions are not used in the text unless they are placed in parentheses. Units of measure and acronyms are. The term acronym is used broadly to include true acronyms as well as initialisms. Familiar acronyms that are pronounced as words usually find their way into the lexicon, appearing in a dictionary. For example, most people understand that radar is used to sense objects in the air or space. Few may be aware the term stands for radio detection and ranging. These common acronyms, along with terms like AIDS or FBI, need not be defined in the text, but most do. Often we are unaware that terms like radar are acronyms, so the need to define them passes unnoticed, which is fine.

Acronyms are used to unclutter the text. The acronym APA is used throughout APA101. The first time it was used, in the syllabus, it was defined. This is a requirement for all acronyms that have not merged into the language. For example,

"The American Psychological Association (APA) publishes a style guide, the Publication Manual American Psychological Association. The APA Manual is a standard reference in psychology and education. The manual is revised from time to time by the APA."

This example (a) defines the acronym the first time it is used; but (b) does not use the acronym in a formal block of text, a title (if it is not in the original, do not use it in the text); (c) an amalgam of the acronym and title is used to transcend this limitation; and finally, (d) the acronym is used in appropriate context. The example might also be written, "The APA (American Psychological Association) publishes. . . ." The key thing is to define the term. Note, APA101 uses the short form APA Manual, the APA Manual prefers the term "Publication Manual," without the "APA." Neither the APA, nor APA101, bother to define these respective usages, leaving it up to reader to figure it out. The important thing is not to confuse or distract the reader.

"To maximize clarity, APA prefers that authors use abbreviations sparingly. . . . Abbreviations introduced on the first mention of a term and used fewer than three time thereafter, . . . may be difficult for the reader to remember" (APA, 2001, p. 103).

Contractions, including Latin abbreviations, are not used in plain text. The equivalent phrase in English must be written out. An exception to this is the Latin abbreviation et al. which may be used with citations outside of parentheses. For example, Brewer et al. (2001) found authors commonly had problems with references.

Emphasis: Italics & Quotation Marks

It is sometimes useful to draw attention to a word or phrase. This is usually done by placing it in italics. For example, when editors refer to style, they mean the rules and guidelines to ensure clear and consistent presentation. Italics are also used when presenting a foreign word. For example, the mountaineers advanced to the south col, a French term for mountain pass. But foreign words that have entered the English language---are listed in an English dictionary---are placed in italics only if they merit attention in the context. As a general rule, use italics to draw attention to a word or phrase, but only the first time it is used, unless it is used sparsely and might confuse the reader if the italics are not retained in subsequent uses.

"Scare quotes" are quotation marks around a term or phrase to alert a reader to a nonstandard or ironic usage, a coined or invented term, or slang. For example, Brewer et al. (2001) referred editors who have rejected papers for failing to meet APA style requirements as "APA style sticklers." A popular talk-show host blasts the "drive-by media," journalists who endlessly spin the news into failures of conservative policy. Scare quotes are rare in practice, and applied only with the first use of the term.

APA Rule. Define acronyms and highlight terms only the first time they are used. Highlight the first use of keywords and terms in italics; ironic or coined terms with scare quotes. If the reader may not recall a definition or the special use of a term later in the text, do it again.

6.2. Quotations
Direct quotations are not too common in research writing, but not rare either. A skillful writer can strengthen the authority of his or her argument by weaving quotations into the flow of their text, adding them to their discourse and arguments. The paramount rule in quoting another's work is to be absolutely faithful to the original, not only word for word, but faithful to the context and meaning the original author intended. These two themes, working a quote into the text and reporting it faithfully, govern the rules for quotations. They are not always compatible. Therefore, rules have evolved for editing quotes to fit the context while remaining true to the source. An attribution to the original source is an added requirement.

In their survey of journal editors Brewer et al. (2001) made the following statement.

"Consequently, it behooves authors seeking to publish in psychology to prepare their manuscripts in general compliance with APA style" (p. 267).

As originally written the quote is difficult to work into another text. It can be edited to do so.

Example 1

Drawing on a survey of journal editors, Doc Scribe cautions authors to "prepare their manuscripts in general compliance [italics added] with APA style" (Brewer et al., 2001, p. 267).

The quote is faithful to the original, but also uses italics to draws attention to a specific word choice. The authors could have used terms like full compliance, or strict compliance, but instead chose the term general compliance. This was the only reasonable phrasing given other information reported in the study, notably that most editors gave greater weight to content than style. APA101 is focused on general compliance, on getting the more visible aspects of APA style right. This quote reinforces the wisdom of this strategy. A note must be added to the quote [italics added] in brackets to indicate the original authors did not emphasize this point, but the current author is.

Example 2

After surveying over 200 editors, Brewer et al. (2001) stated, "It behooves authors . . . to prepare their manuscripts in general compliance with APA style!" (p. 267).

This example introduces the quote formally, making it appropriate to uppecase the lead character in the quote following a colon. The original began: "Consequently, it behooves . . ." The first word was dropped and "It" was uppercased. A lowercased word can be uppercased, and vice versa, without adding a note, and words beginning or ending a quote in the original can be dropped, also without adding a note. A part of the original---"seeking to publish in psychology"---was dropped and replaced by an ellipsis, three periods with a single space before, between, and after each. An ommission within a quote must be so noted. Finally, an exclamation point was added to the quote. This too can be done without a note of explanation.

Example 3

Class papers are a prelude to publication, "consequently, it behooves authors seeking to publish in psychology [or education] to prepare their manuscripts in general compliance with APA style" (Brewer et al., 2001, p. 267).

The first word of the quote was lowercased to fit the syntax. The phrase "[or education]" was added in brackets to suggest that journal editors in that field are likely no less demanding than those in psychology (e.g., the Harvard Educational Review follows APA style too). The brackets indicate text that was not in the original.

The page number always follows the quote. The citations in examples 1 and 3 come at the end of the quote. Example 2 introduces the authors in the the text, followed by the year in parentheses. A second citation with the page number comes after the quote.

APA Rule. Quotations must fit the sense and syntax of your text and may be edited to do so. A quote must be faithful to the original, but an explanation is not needed to change case and punctuation; brackets are used to note added text or emphasis; an ellipsis is inserted in place of ommissions. Block format long quotes or 40 words or more.

Longer quotations, quotes of 40 words or more, are set as block quotes. Block quotes indent the entire quote 1/2 inch from the left margin (the same distance as a paragraph indent). In final manuscripts single-space within the quote, double-space before and after. Do not add a second indent to the quote even if the original begins a paragraph. But if you are quoting more than one paragraph, begin subsequent paragraphs with a paragraph indent. A block quote is typically in the text following a colon:

In contrast with the preponderance of their peers, a subset of journal editors (approximately one fifth of the sample) ascribe high importance to preparing manuscripts in a manner consistent with APA style. . . . Consequently, it behooves authors seeking to publish in psychology to prepare their manuscripts in general compliance with APA style. (Brewer et al., 2001, p. 267)

The two sentences come at the beginning and end of a paragraph. An ellipsis is inserted after the period in first sentence indicating the ommission. The citation follows the quote, after the final period. There is no period after the citation. This indicates the citation applies to the entire block, not just the last sentence. The Chicago Manual of Style (2003) follows the same practice.

6.3. Fonts, Spacing, & Capitalization
Chapter 4 introduced the APA preference for serif fonts, and rules block paragraph spacing and heading capitalization. They merit repeating and elaboration.

APA Rule. A serif font is required for APA style papers. This is a font with small cross bars on the letters. Common serif fonts are Courier and Times Roman. Use a 12 point font (or a size equivalent to an elite or pica typewriter font). Do not proportionally space or hyphenate words, use a compressed typeface, or justify the right margin.

Do not proportionally space or hyphenate words, use a compressed typeface, or justify the right margin. Word processors can be set to produce a straight right margin. This may be attractive, but to achieve the effect words and spaces are usually strung out on a line of text. Even worse, words may be hyphenated at the end of lines. This can introduce ambiguity into the meaning of words. Research styles are focused on clarity of communication. Anything that impedes that objective is ruled out. Therefore, research styles require a ragged right margin in manuscripts.

APA style goes further, asking that you space just once after all punctuation (with the exception of commas after initials or abbreviations, where no space is appropriate). This applies to the spacing after colons as well as at the end of a sentence. This rule rests of a tenuous foundation, since it is hard to see how it improves clarity. If you elect to violate it, for example, at the end of sentences where two spaces are often preferred, be consistent!

APA Rule. Heading caps capitalize the first word, the first word after a colon; all words of four letters or more; and all adjectives, adverbs, nouns, and pronouns in a heading or title. Articles, conjunctions, and short prepositions are not capitalized. Capitalize all words of a hyphenated compound word.

Capitalization should otherwise be straightforward, following common usage in the text. But the APA Manual offers several nuances and exceptions. These are the sort of details you might not think to check. They illustrate why the APA Manual is an essential reference when writing important papers.

Capitalize the first word after a colon if the clause following can stand alone as a complete sentence (APA, 2001, sec. 3.04). For example, Jack noted two obstacles on the climb: a gendarme on the ridge, and a cornice above the head wall. Jack rested after the climb: He was exhausted.

Capitalize tables and figures in your text, for example, Table 3, Figure 4, and words that designate a specific place in a series, Trial 3, Table 4, Figure 3. But, do not capitalize nouns that denote common parts of books or tables followed by numerals or letters, for example, lesson 4, chapter 6, page vi, row 7, column 8 (APA, 2001, sec. 3.15).

Do not capitalize nouns that precede a variable, for example, trial x and item y. But when these become specific, they are capitalized, for example, Trial 5, Item d (APA, 2001, sec. 3.15).

6.4. Avoiding Bias
Tripwire Issue! The following is from the APA Manual (2001): "As an organization, APA is committed both to science and to the fair treatment of individuals and groups, and this policy requires authors of APA publications to avoid perpetuating demeaning attitudes and biased assumptions about people in their writing" (p. 61).

Assigned Reading. The APA "Guidelines to Reduce Bias in Language" are reasonable and well articulated, although, perhaps, verging of politically correct. The section is just nine pages:

APA101: Exercises for This Lesson

Apply the Rules. The following sentences or phrases may contain errors. Apply the rules presented in this lesson to correct them.

Q1. Her French friend wished her bonne année, a happy new year.

Q2. The American Psychiatric Association (APA) prefers a pharmacological approach to treating mental illness: the APA (American Psychological Association) would like psychologists to to have the same authority.

Q3. The study focused on homosexuals and lesbians while ignoring other schizophrenics.

Q4. The alcoholics went through detoxification cold turkey.

Q5. The title of the little book is "Life among the South Seas savages."

Q6. According to Brewer et al. (2001, p. 267) "[A] subset of journal editors . . . ascribed a high importance to . . . (following) . . . APA style."

Q7. Brewer et al. (2001) presented their statistics in the text, but APA101 presented them in table 3, lesson 1, and table 4 in lesson 5.

Q8. The authors of the study argued that it behooves writers to follow APA style so as not to be rejected by APA Style Sticklers.

Q9. The study (Brewer et al., 2001) observed that writers had a variety of problems in a number of categories, i.e., formatting the title page and abstract, presenting statistics, documentation (p. 266).

Q10. When editors' speak of "style," they generally refer to the clear expression of ideas (APA, 2001).

Answers to the Exercise

Required Text for APA101

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American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological
Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. New prices: $33.95 spiral bound, and
$26.95 paperback (free shipping, no taxes).

Fifth Edition. The APA Publication Manual is the commanding guide in psychology, and found in other fields ranging from education to literature. The new edition shows how to format papers (40 pp., 15 with diagrams), expands coverage of tables and figures (50 pp.), adds Web sources to the 95 references sources covered (75 pp.), and refines the best section on avoiding bias found anywhere (15 pp.). The spiral bound edition lies open to the page you select, not a trivial convenience!

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