Correct use of the terms "gender" and "sex"
- The term "gender" refers to culture and should be used when referring to men and women as social groups, as in this example from the Publication Manual: "sexual orientation rather than gender accounted for most of the
variance in the results; most gay men and lesbians were for it, most heterosexual men and women were against it" (APA, 2001, p. 63).
- The term "sex" refers to biology and should be used when biological distinctions are emphasized, for example, "sex differences in hormone production."
- Avoid gender stereotypes. For example, the manual suggests replacing "An American
boy's infatuation with football" with "An American child's infatuation with football" (see APA, 2001, p. 66).
Sensitivity to labels
Be sensitive to labels. A person in a clinical study should be called a "patient," not a "case." Avoid equating people with their conditions, for example, do not say "schizophrenics," say "people diagnosed with schizophrenia." Use the term "sexual orientation," not "sexual preference." The phrase "gay men and lesbians" is currently preferred to the
term "homosexuals." To refer to all people who are not heterosexual, the manual suggests "lesbians, gay men, and bisexual women and men" (APA, 2001, p. 67).
Ethnic labels can be tricky, and the manual has a lot to say about them. For example, "American Indian" and "Native American" are both acceptable usages, but the manual notes that there are nearly 450 Native American groups, including Hawaiians and Samoans, so specific group names are far more informative, such as Hopi or Lakota.
- Capitalize Black and White when the words are used as proper nouns to refer to social groups. Do not use color words for other ethnic groups. In racial references, the manual simply recommends that we respect current usage. Currently both the terms "Black" and "African American" are widely accepted, while "Negro" and "Afro-American" are not. These things change, so use common sense.
- The terms Hispanic, Latino, and Chicano are preferred by different groups. The safest procedure is use geographical references. Just say "Cuban American" if referring to people from Cuba.
- The term Asian American is preferable to Oriental, and again the manual recommends being specific about country of origin, when this is known (for example, Chinese or Vietnamese). The manual specifies that hyphens should not be used in multiword names such as Asian American or African American.
- People from northern Canada, Alaska, eastern Siberia, and Greenland often (but not always!) prefer Inuk (singular) and Inuit (plural) to "Eskimo." But some Alaska natives are non-Inuit people who prefer to be called Eskimo. This type of difficulty is avoided by using geographical references. For example, in place of "Eskimo" or "Inuit" one could use "indigenous people from northern Canada, Alaska, eastern Siberia, and Greenland."
- In referring to age, be specific about age ranges; avoid open-ended definitions like "under 16" or "over 65." Avoid the term elderly. Older person is preferred. Boy and Girl are acceptable referring to high school and and younger. For persons 18 and older use men and women.
In general, call people what they want to be called, and do not contrast one group of people with another group called "normal." Write "we compared people with autism to people without autism" not "we contrasted autistics to normals." Do not use pejorative terms like "stroke victim" or "stroke sufferers." Use a more neutral terminology such as "people who have had a stroke." Avoid the terms "challenged" and "special" unless the population referred to prefers this terminology (for example, Special Olympics). As a rule, use the phrase "people with _______" (for example, "people with AIDS," not "AIDS sufferers").
Capitalization (Contents)
Heading caps capitalize all major words and all words of four letters or more in headings, titles, and subtitles outside reference lists, for example, chapter 6 in the APA Manual (2001) is titled "Material Other Than Journal Articles."
Sentence caps capitalize the first word and the first word after a comma or colon when the phrase is a complete sentence. For example, "This is a complete sentence, so this is capitalized."
The basic rule is to capitalize terms if they are highly specific--in effect, used as proper nouns. For example, write the nineteen twenties (1920s), but also write the Roaring Twenties. Vague references to the "control group," or the "test factors" are not capitalized, while references to specific terms are: "Control Group A" and "Test Factor 2." Write the Great Plains, but also write the central plains, and the plains of Nebraska (but the Nebraska Plains).
- Capitalize formal names of tests, conditions, groups, effects, and variables only when definite and specific (e.g., Stroop Color-Word Interference Test, Group A was the control group). But do not capitalize names of laws, theories, and hypotheses (e.g., the law of effect, the test groups). Capitalize nouns before numbers, but not before variables (Trial 2, trial x).
- Capitalize specific course and department titles (GSU Department of Psychology, Psych 150). But do not capitalize the term when referring to generalities (any department, any introductory course).
Commas (Contents)
- Do not use commas to separate parts of measurement (9 lbs 5 oz). Use the metric system, as a rule.
- Use commas before "and" in lists, for example, height, width, and depth.
- Use commas between groups of three digits, for example, 1,453.
- Use commas to set off a reference in a parenthetical comment (Patrick, 1993).
- Use commas for seriation within a paragraph or sentence. For example, "three choices are (a) true, (b) false, and (c) don't know." Use semicolons for seriation if there are commas within the items. For example, (a) here, in
the middle of the item, there are commas; (b) here there are not; (c) so we use semicolons throughout.
- Use commas in exact dates, for example, April 18, 1992 (but not in April 1992).
Hyphenation (Contents)
Compound words are two or more words that work together in a specified order. This order cannot be reversed or rearranged without destroying the compound word's meaning. A dictionary is the best guide to spelling and usage. If it is not in the dictionary it is not likely a hyphenated compound, but check the following rules for possible exceptions. If it is in the dictionary, use the first spelling given.
"With frequent use, open or hyphenated compounds tend to become closed (on line to on-line to online). Chicago's general adherence to Webster does not preclude occasional exceptions when the closed spellings have become widely accepted, pronunciation and readability are not at stake, and keystrokes can be saved" (CMS, 2003, p. 300).
General Rules
Full-time compound words are hyphenated whatever their role in a sentence—as an adjective or a noun. "The court-martial hearing is set for 1000 hours. The hearing will determine whether a court-martial is warranted." Court-martial is a full-time compound word (as is "full-time"). This information is given in a dictionary.
Conditional compounds are hyphenated as adjectives, but not when used as nouns.
- Adjectival compound. "The counselor suggested a role-playing technique to reduce the stress of encounters, but cautioned that role playing alone would not solve the problem." Role-playing is a compound adjective, but not a compound noun.
- Add a hyphen to any prefix attached to a proper noun, capitalized abbreviation, or number. For example, the post-Freudian era, the pre-1960s civil rights movement, the many non-ASA journals in sociology.
- Fractions. "When . . . a fraction is considered a single quantity, it is hyphenated [whether it is used as a noun or as an adjective]" (CMS, 2003, p. 383). One-fourth the audience was comprised of former refugees. A two-thirds majority was required to pass the initiative.
- Made-up compound. A compound may be of the made-up-for-the-occasion variety: "The up-to-date figures were unadjusted." But when these terms are used in the predicate they are not hyphenated: The compound word was made up for the occasion. "The unadjusted figures were up to date."
- Serial compounds. When two or more compound modifiers have a common base, this base is sometimes omitted in all but the last modifier, but the hyphens are retained. Long- and short-term memory, 2-, 3-, and 10-minute trials.
- Do not hyphenate a compound term using an adverb ending in -ly. "The widely used term was not yet in the dictionary. Such clearly understood terms are eventually documented if they endure."
 Avoid confusion! A re-creation is not the same as recreation. Does "the fast sailing ship" refer to a ship that was designed for speed, or one that is making an unusually fast passage? If the former, then it is a fast sailing ship. If it is the latter, then it is a fast-sailing ship (CMS, 1993, p. 203).
Prefixes
Through long usage most common prefixes do not require a hyphen: aftereffect, antifreeze, cofounder, Internet, microwave, oversight, preempt, reexamine, supermarket, unbiased, underground. There are many exceptions. When in doubt check a dictionary. Note the following exceptions:
- Same two letters. If the prefix puts the same two letters together, a hyphen is sometimes inserted. For example, write: anti-industrial, co-op, non-native, post-trial. But also write: cooperative, coordinate, nonnegotiable, overrate, overreach, overrule, reelect, unnamed.
- Superlatives-diminutives. Some prefixes, best-, better-, ill-, lesser-, little-, well-, are hyphenated when they precede the noun they modify, but are not hyphenated when preceded by a modifier, or when used as a predicate adjective. The ill-advised attack failed, the strategy was ill advised.
- Weird terms. If the prefix creates an unfamiliar or weird term, a hyphen may improve clarity. The Turabian Guide offers these examples: pro-ally, anti-college instead of proally, anticollege (1976, p. 101).
The following prefixes always require a hyphen.
Italics (Emphasis) (Contents)
- Italicize or underline the titles of books and the names of journals, newspapers, and magazines; species names; special terms, keywords, and labels (the first time only); words and phrases used as linguistic examples (the first time only); letters used as statistical symbols, and volume numbers in references.
- Add emphasis to a word or phrase by placing it in italics (the first time only). Do this sparingly.
- Use scare quotes (quotation marks) to "introduce a word or phrase used as an ironic comment, as slang, or as an invented word or coined expression" (APA, 2001, p. 82).
- Do not italicize or underline common foreign abbreviations (e.g., vice versa, et al., a priori).
Numbers (Contents)
- Spell out numbers which are below 10, not precise measurements, and not grouped with numbers over 10 (one-tailed t test, eight items, nine pages, three-way interaction, five trials).
- Spell out common fractions and common expressions (one-half, Fourth of July).
- Spell out all numbers beginning sentences (Thirty days hath September . . .).
- Treat ordinal numbers like cardinal numbers (the first item of the 75th trial . . .).
- Use numerals for numbers 10 and above, or numbers under 10 grouped with numbers 10 and above (for example, from 6 to 12 hours of sleep).
- Use numerals for exact statistical measures, scores, sample sizes, and sums (multiplied by 3, or 5% of the sample). Another example: "We studied 30 subjects, all two-year-olds, and they spent an average of 1 hr 20 min per day crying."
- Physical measures are given in the metric system following the International System of Units (a free style guide is available from the National Institute of Science and Technology).
- To make plurals out of numbers, add s only, with no apostrophe (the 1950s).
- Use combinations of written and Arabic numerals for back-to-back numbers (five 4-point scales).
- Use combinations of numerals and written numbers for large sums (over 3 million people).
- Use metric abbreviations with figures (4 km) but not when written out (many meters distant).
- Use the percent symbol (%) only with figures (5%) not with written numbers (five percent).
APA style has a special set of numbers that are always written as numerals. These are “numbers that represent time; dates; ages; sample, subsample, or population size; specific numbers of subjects or participants in
an experiment; scores and points on a scale; exact sums of money; and numerals as numerals” (APA, 2001, p. 124). Write “in about 3 years; 2 weeks ago; 1 hr 34 min; at 12:30 a.m.; 2-year-olds; 3 participants [but two raters, seven observers]; 9 rats; scored 4 on a 7-point scale; were paid $5 each; the numerals on the scorecard were 0–6” (APA, 2001, p. 124).
“Numbers that denote a specific place in a numbered series, parts of books and tables, and each number in a list of four or more numbers” are also written with numerals. Write “Grade 8 [but the eighth grade; see section 3.45]; Trial 3; Table 4; page 71; chapter 5; row 5; and 1, 3, 4, and 7 words, respectively” (APA, 2001, p. 125).
Statistics (Contents)
- Most symbols for statistics are placed in italics (exceptions are very rare).
- Place a space before and after all arithmetic operators and signs ( = , < , > , - , + , etc.).
Nonstandard symbols are used for some common statistics:
- M = mean (
 ),
- SD = standard deviation (
 ),
- Mdn = median,
- SS = sum of squares (
 X 2).
- Check the APA Manual, Table 3.9, for a complete list of accepted symbols.
APA style presents descriptive statistics and inferential statistics differently.
- Descriptive statistics give summary information about a sample or population, such as the average (mean) or standard deviation of some characteristic. For example, "Abigail Scribe has a GPA of 3.65, which is below the average for students accepted at Ivy and Oak University (M = 3.85, SD = 0.21)." Descriptive statistics may be presented in the text with the appropriate syntax (e.g., "a GPA of 3.85"). When referred to indirectly they are set in parentheses, as with (M = 3.85, SD = 0.21).
- Inferential statistics reason from a sample to the characteristics of a population, often expressed as a probability. For example, "Abbie Scribe has a chance of being accepted at Ivy and Oak University (p < .15), but counselors advise her that her odds are not great based on last year's applicants, X 2(2, N = 2247) = 2.81, p < .15 (one-tailed)." Inferential statistics are presented in the text (no parentheses) with "sufficient information to allow the reader to fully understand the results of the analysis. . . . [Which] depends on the analytic approach selected" (APA, 2001, p. 138). Inferential statistics follow these examples from the APA Manual (2001):
t(60) = 1.99, p = .03 (one-tailed), d = .50;
X 2(4, N = 90) = 10.51, p = .03.
The first number in parentheses is degrees of freedom of the analysis; the N in the X 2 statistic is the sample population.
Quotations (Contents)
"Material directly quoted from another author's work . . . should be reproduced word for word. Incorporate a short quotation (fewer than 40 words) in text and enclose the quotation with double quotation marks . . . . Display a quotation of 40 or more words in a freestanding block of typewritten lines, and omit the quotation marks. Start such a block quotation on a new line, and indent the block about 1/2 inch . . . from the left margin" (APA, 2001, p. 117).
- When the author is introduced in the text the page number follows the quotation, but the date follows the author's name. Smith (1999) reported that "the creature walked like a duck and quacked like a duck" (p. 23). The abbreviation "p." for page ("pp." for pages) is lowercased.
- Without an introductory phrase, the author, date, and page are placed together. For example, It was reported that "the creature walked like a duck and quacked like a duck" (Smith, 1999, p. 23).
- The same form is followed when citing a block quote. See the examples in the section on text citations.
Editing quotations.
Effective writing seeks to merge quotations into the flow of the text. The reader should not stumble over a quote. Edit a quotation according to the following rules, abstracted from the APA Manual (2001, pp. 119–120).
- Change case/punctuation. The case of the letter beginning the quote, and punctuation ending it, may be changed to fit the syntax. Drawing on the sentence above, note that "effective writing seeks to merge quotations" with the syntax of the text. A lowercase letter can also be uppercased, and the ending punctuation changed. "Merge quotations into the flow of the text!" Do NOT write "[M]erge quotations . . . ." in APA style (this is a Chicago thing, see Chicago Manual of Style, 2003, p. 462).
- Omit . . . Words. Words may be omitted from a quote as long as the original meaning is not altered. For example, you cannot change "the results of the test were not conclusive" to "the results of the test were . . . conclusive." The omissions is an ellipsis, and is indicated by inserting three ellipsis points, three periods with a space before, after, and between each period. If the omission is between two sentences, four points are used. "Do not use ellipsis points at the beginning or end of any quotation unless, in order to prevent misinterpretation, you need to emphasize the quotation begins or ends in midsentence" (APA, 2001, p. 119).
- [sic]. Obvious errors in a quotation may be corrected without making a special notation. But for an unusual word choice, concept, term, or spelling, it may be appropriate to emphasize that the original is being quoted faithfully. This is done by inserting the Latin term sic (thus), in italics or underlined, and in brackets, immediately following the term (see APA, 2001, p. 118). For example, the researcher reported "the hapless students in the study sttutttered [sic] unbearably."
- [Add note]. A clarification may be inserted in a quote. This is added in brackets at the the appropriate place. For example, the local authority reported "they [the Irish Republican Army] called for a cease-fire."
- [Italics added]. Emphasis may be added to a quote with italics. When this is done a note must be appended to the quote in brackets immediately after the change [italics added] to the quotation.
Rules, Spacing, & Lists (Contents)
- APA Preferences. Use appendixes (not appendices) as the plural of appendix. Use
datum as singular, data as plural. Use matrix as singular, matrices as plural. Phenomenon is the singular form of the plural phenomena. Use schema as singular, schemas (not schemata) as plural.
- Punctuation. Use a dash (rendered on typewriters and some word processors as a double hyphen) when there is a sharp break--usually an apposition--in the flow of a sentence. Overuse "weakens the flow of the writing" (APA, 2001, p. 81).
- Use parentheses to introduce an acronym, for example, the galvanic skin response (GSR).
- Do not use "and/or." Write things out. For example, "Monday, Tuesday, or both" is preferable to "Monday and/or Tuesday."
- Do not use a colon or other punctuation after an introduction to a quote which is not a complete sentence such as
this one, or any other sentence in the body of text which flows
into an extended quote. The quote "picks up where the sentence leaves off"
and provides the punctuation.
- Use quotation marks for an odd or ironic usage (called "scare quotes") the first time but not thereafter, for example, "This is the "good-outcome" variable, but as it turns out, the good-outcome variable predicts trouble later on . . ."
- Use quotation marks for article and chapter titles cited in the text but not in the reference list. For example, in Smith's (1992) article, "APA Style and Personal Computers," computers were described as "here to stay" (p. 311).
- Character spacing. Space once after all punctuation--after commas, colons, semicolons, the punctuation at the end of a sentence, and after initials in names (unless followed by a comma). Do not space after internal periods in abbreviations, such as U.S., a.m., or around the colon in a ratio (e.g., 5:1 ratio) (APA, 2001, pp. 290-291). The APA Manual encourages changes to improve readability in final manuscripts. Spacing twice at the end of a sentence may help meet this goal. As always, be consistent.
- Seriation (Lists). When listing a series in running text in a sentence: (a) note each item with a lowercase letter, and (b) place the lowercase item letter in parentheses. When listing separate paragraphs in a series (seriation), use a number and a period, without parentheses:
- The first paragraph is number one.
- The second paragraph follows, number two.
Contents
PAGE FORMATS
The title page combines the title and abstract and follows suggestions in the APA Manual (2001, p. 326). Blocks of text (title, author, abstract) are single-spaced within, double- or triple-spaced before and after. The page number is placed bottom center. The author’s university affliliation is already known; substituting the course and date adds more useful information. The running head is dropped as it serves no purpose except for publication. A bold font for the title and headings improves readability (APA, p. 325). Without an abstract place title and author midpage.
The APA Manual notes that "the size of the type should be one of the standard typewriter sizes (pica or elite) or, if produced from a word processing program, 12 points" (2001, p. 285).
The text of the paper should be in a serif typeface (like Courier or Times Roman) with lettering on figures in a sans serif typeface (such as Helvetica or Arial).
Text Details (Contents)
- Margins should be at least 1" around the page (about 2.5 cm); wider left if the paper is to be bound.
- Double space the text, but single space within block quotes, references, and the abstract.
- Space once after all punctuation (APA, 2001, p. 290). When spacing twice at the end of a sentence would "improve
readability," it is encouraged (APA, p. 325). Be consistent.
- Right justifying a paper can introduce ambiguities with uncertain hyphenation, a ragged right margin is preferred (APA, p. 287). But "justified margins may substitute for ragged right margins" in final manuscripts (APA, p. 325).
- Indent paragraphs, block quotes, and hanging indents one-half inch (1.25 cm or five to seven spaces).
- Long quotations, 40 word or more, are formatted as text blocks (see example just above).
- Page numbers are required on every page: Number pages consecutively.
- Emphasis requires the use of italics, but only the first time a term is used. If the intent is to indicate odd or ironic usage, use quotation marks.
- Header. The page header summarizes the title in a few words. The header and page number go inside the margin space, double spaced above the text, next to the right margin.
- Abstracts are limited to 120 words (APA, 2001, p. 13).
- Footnotes are rarely used in APA papers, except for author affiliation and contact information--the author note.
- Word processor features--such as bold and italic fonts and hanging indents--should be used as appropriate.
Headings (Contents)
APA headings follow a complex hierarchy, with provision for up to five levels. These come, in descending order, as levels 5, 1, 2, 3, 4. But, if one, two, or three levels of headings are required in a paper, use levels 1, 3, and 4, in that order. If four levels are required, interleave level 2 between levels 1 and 3. If five levels are required, start with level five and work down the remaining hierarchy in order (5, 1, 2, 3, 4). Confused? Most papers will need no more than three levels. To avoid confusion these are labeled A, B, and C below (APA levels 1, 3, and 4 respectively) (see APA, 2001, pp. 114–115).
Use headings in the order presented. If you need just two levels, use Level A and Level B headings. Level A and B headings do not end with punctuation except to add emphasis with an exclamation point or question mark. Do not begin a paper with the heading Introduction. It is understood that all papers begin with an introduction.
References and Tables (Contents)
Table Notes (Contents)
Number tables consecutively as they appear in your text. Use only whole numbers, no 5a, 5b, etc. See recent issues of the American Psychologist or other APA journals for more complex table layouts. "Tables are efficient, enabling the researcher to present a large amount of data in a small amount of space" (APA, 2001, p. 147).
- Place tables close to where they are first mentioned in your text, but do not split a table across pages. (Tables in papers submitted for review or publication are placed on separate pages at the end of the paper.)
- Label each table beginning with the table number followed by a description of the contents.
- Horizontal rules (lines) should be typed into tables, not drawn by hand.
- Each row and column must have a heading. Abbreviations and symbols (e.g., "%" or "nos.") may be used.
- Do not change the number of decimal places within a column from row to row.
- Do not change the units of measurement within a column from row to row.
- "Use a zero before the decimal point when numbers are less than one" (APA, 2001, p. 128). Write "0.23" not ".23" unless the number is a statistic that cannot be larger than one, for example a correlation r = .55, or a probability p < .01.
- Add notes to explain the table contents. These may be general notes or footnotes. The latter are labeled "a, b, c, etc."
- Use asterisks to indicate statistical significance explained in the probability level note at the bottom of the table. "Assign a given alpha level the same number of asterisks from table to table within your paper, such as *p < .05 and **p < .01; the largest probability receives the fewest asterisks [the smaller probability get more asterisks]" (APA, 2001, p. 170).
- You may both single space and double space within a table to achieve clarity. Tables in papers submitted for review or publication (only!) must be double spaced throughout.
Contents
RESEARCH DOCUMENTATION
Text Citations
Use the author-date format to cite references in text. For example: as Smith (1990) points out, a recent study (Smith, 1990) shows. . . . Every source cited in your text--and only those sources cited in your text--are referenced in the reference list.
- Citations with three to five authors list all authors in the first citation; the lead author et al. (and others) in subsequent citations: first, (Smith, Jones, Andrews, Baker, & Charles, 2001); next, (Smith et al., 2001).
- Citations with six or more authors list the lead author et al. in all citations.
- Join the last name name in a multiple-author citation with and (in text) or an ampersand (&) in reference lists and parenthetical comments. For example: As Smith and Sarason (1990) point out, the same argument was made in an earlier study (Smith & Sarason, 1990).
- If a group is readily identified by its initials, spell it out only the first time. For example, "As reported in a government study (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 1991) . . . ." The next citation gives just the initials and year, (NIMH, 1991).
- If the author is unknown or unspecified, use the first few words of the reference list entry (usually the title), for example: ("Study Finds," 1992). Remember to use heading caps in the text when noting a title; always use sentence caps in references!
- Reprints cite the he original publication date and reprint date if both are known, for example: (James, 1890/1983). Translations of classics note the date of the translation: (Aristotle, trans. 1931).
- For e-mail and other "unrecoverable data" use personal communication, for example: (C. G. Jung, personal communication, September 28, 1933). These do not appear in the reference list.
Citing Quotations
- Include a page reference after the year, outside quotes. For example, one study reported "the results were ambiguous" (Alvarez, 2004, p. 123).
- If the author is cited in the text, the date follows the author's name, the page number follows the quotation, both are placed in parentheses. For example, Thomas and Miller (2006) found "the results were extremely ambiguous" (p. 123).
- Long quotations follow the same rules. A famous nineteenth century philosopher argued that:
- The mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation. What is called resignation is confirmed desperation. From the desperate city you go to the desperate country, and have to console yourself with the bravery of minks and muskrats. . . . But it is a characteristic of wisdom not to do desperate things. (Thoreau, 1854/1969, p. 10) <No period here!
- Also write, Henry David Thoreau (1854/1960) observed that:
- The mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation. What is called resignation is confirmed desperation. From the desperate city you go to the desperate country, and have to console yourself with the bravery of minks and muskrats. . . . But it is a characteristic of wisdom not to do desperate things. (p. 10) <No period here!
- Note, the final citation follows the closing punctuation of the quotation, with no punctuation following the citation.
Abbreviating Within a Reference (Contents)
The following abbreviations may be used in a reference list:
- cap. for chapter
- ed. for edition
- rev. ed. for revised edition
- 2nd ed. for second edition
- Ed. for Edited by
- (Eds.) for multiple editors
- Trans. for Translated by
- p. for page number, with a space after the period
|
- pp. for page numbers (plural)
- para. paragraph (also use ¶)
- Vol. for a specific Volume
- vols. for a work with xx volumes
- No. for Number
- Pt. for Part
- Suppl. for Supplement,
- Tech. Rep. for Technical Report
|
Use the abbreviation "pp." for page numbers in encyclopedia entries, multi-page newspaper articles, chapters or articles in edited books, but not in journal or magazine article citations, where numbers alone should be used (see examples of reference formats).
Alphabetizing Reference Lists (Contents)
- Use prefixes in alphabetizing names if commonly part of the surname (De
Vries).
- Do not use von in alphabetizing (Helmholtz, H. L. F. von), or Jr., III, or Sr.
- Treat Mc and Mac literally; Mac comes before Mc.
- Disregard apostrophes, spaces, and capitals in alphabetizing; D'Arcy comes after Daagwood, Decker comes after de Chardin.
- Single-author citations precede multiple-author citations of the same year (Zev, 1990 then Zev et al., 1990).
- Multiple works by the same author(s) in the same year--add letters to the dates, eg., 2005a, 2005b, . . .
- Alphabetize corporate authors by first significant word. Do not use abbreviations in corporate names.
Sample References (Contents)
The APA Publication Manual now instructs authors to use hanging indents for references, and to use italics
for titles in place of underlining where called for. The hanging indent is one-half inch (1.25 cm), just like paragraph indents. All titles in references are set in sentence caps, but titles quoted in the text are set in heading caps. No quotation marks are used around titles of articles in references, but quotes are used when citing article titles in the text. The APA Publication Manual (2001) contains 95 examples of different reference types (pp. 240-281). The following are examples of the most common sources. More extensive style sheets are available at: www.docstyles.com.
Your text and the reference list must agree. "References cited in text must appear in the reference list; conversely, each entry in the reference list must be cited in text" (APA, 2001, p. 215). See the section on Reference citations for citing references in text.
- Anonymous or Unknown Author (common in newspapers)
Caffeine linked to mental illness. (1991, July 13). New York Times, pp. B13, B15.
- Merriam-Webster collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.
- Citations: ("Caffeine Linked," 1991), (Meriam-Webster, 1993). A short version of the title is used
in the citation.
Use heading caps when citing titles in the text or in text citations, with quotation marks around article titles,
italics with book titles.
- Books-Authors (Contents)
Kohut, H. (1971). The analysis of the self: A systematic approach to the psychoanalytic treatment of narcissistic - personality disorders. New York: International Universities Press.
Citation: (Kohut, 1971). Note: APA style typically gives the full title/subtitle in references
- Edition other than first
Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (1979). The elements
of style (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan.
- Citation: (Strunk & White, 1979).
- Editor as author (Edited book)
Friedman, H. S. (Ed.). (1990). Personality and disease. New York: Wiley.
- Citation: (Friedman, 1990). Note: Usually a specific article in a compilation is cited.
When the entire volume is cited add the note (Ed.) or (Eds.) after the author-editor(s).
- Group author
American Psychiatric Association. (1990). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). - Washington, DC: Author.
Citation: (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 1990); next citation (APA, 1990).
Note: "Author" is used as publisher when author and publisher are identical.
- Multiple authors (3-5)
Booth, W. C., Colomb, G. G., & Williams, J. M. (1995). The craft of research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Citation: (Booth, Colomb, & Williams, 1995); next citation (Booth et al., 1995).
Note: With 3-5 authors, list all in the first citation, the lead author et al. in subsequent citations.
- Multiple authors (6 or more)
Montani, C., Billaud, N., Tyrrell, J., Fluchaire, I., Malterre, C., Lauvernay, N., et al. (1997). Psychological
impact - of a remote psychometric consultation with hospitalized elderly people. Journal of
Telemedicine and Telecare,
3, 140-145.
Citation: (Montani et al., 1997). Note: List up to six authors in all references, if there are more than six give the
first six plus et al. in the reference. In all text citations give just the lead author plus et al.
- Reprint (translation)
Ebbinghaus, H. (1913). Memory (H. A. Rueger & C. E. Bussenius, Trans.). New York:
Teachers College. - (Original work published 1885)
Citation: (Ebbinghaus, 1885/1913). Note: There is no period after (Original work published)
- Chapter in an Edited Book (Contents)
Beers, M. H., & Berkow, R. (1999). Mood disorders. In The Merck manual of diagnosis and therapy (17th ed., - sec. 15, chap. 189). Retrieved January 17, 2003, from http://www.merck.com/pubs/mmanual/section15/chapter189/189a.htm
- Stephan, W. G. (1985). Intergroup relations. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social
- psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 599–658). New York: Random House.
Citations: (Beers & Berkow, 1999, chap. 189); (Stephan, 1985). Note: Break a URL to wrap a line only after
a slash or before a period. Do not add a hyphen or any other punctuation. Usually, only the page numbers
are cited in a reference--follow the form shown if more information is relevant.
Editors' names go in their normal order, not reversed like authors' names!
- Encyclopedia-Dictonary Reference (Contents)
Bergman, P. G. (1998). Relativity. In Encyclopedia Britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago, IL:
- Encyclopedia Britannica.
- Merriam-Webster collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.
- Government Report (Works by Same Author) (Contents)
National Institute of Mental Health. (2002). Breaking ground, breaking through: The strategic plan for mood
- disorders research of the National Institute of Mental Health (Publication No. 0507-B-05). Retrieved
January 19, 2003, from NIMH Web site via GPO Access: http://purl.access.gpo.gov/GPO/LPS20906
Citation: (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2002); next citation (NIMH, 2002).
- Works by same author, same year
Taylor, B. N. (1995a). Guide for the use of the International System of Units (SI) (NIST Special Publication 811, - 1995 Edition). Retrieved June 25, 2003, from National Institute of Standards and Technology Web site:
http://physics.nist.gov/Document/sp811.pdf
- Taylor, B. N. (1995b). Guide for the use of the International System of Units (SI) (NIST Special Publication 811,
- 1995 Edition). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Note: Reference a report as you would a book. Add a report number in parentheses after the title if it is available.
When there are two or more works by the same author list the earliest first. If two are published in the same
year, add letters to the year, cite (Taylor, 1995a).
- Journal Articles (Contents)
Annual review
Kelly, J. D., & Kaplan, M. (1990). Ritual studies. Annual Review of Research in Anthropology, 19, 119–150.
Citation: (Kelly & Kaplan, 1990). Annual reviews are published as books but are referenced as periodicals
since the series continues from year to year.
- Article (journal paged by volume)
Berry, D. S., & Pennebaker, J. W. (1993). Nonverbal and verbal emotional expression and health.
- Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 59, 11–19.
Citation: (Perry & Pennebaker, 1993). Most journals are paged by volume, that is, page numbering in
each succeeding issue begins where the last issue left off. The volume number is also set in italics
with the journal name!
- Three to five authors
Brewer, B. W., Scherzer, C. B., Van Raalte, J. L., Petitpas, A. J., & Andersen, M. B. (2001). The - elements of (APA) style: A survey of psychology journal editors. American Psychologist, 56, 266-267.
First citation list all authors: (Brewer, Scherzer, Van Raalte, Petitpas, & Andersen, 2001). Next citation:
(Brewer et al., 2001). When there are three to five authors to a work list all authors in the first citation;
just the lead author et al. in subsequent citations.
- Six authors:
Mokdad, A. H., Bowman, B. A., Ford, E. S., Vinicor, F., Marks, J. S., & Koplan, J. P. (2001). The continuing - epidemics of obesity and diabetes in the U.S. JAMA, 286, 1195-1200.
All citations: (Mokdad et al., 2001). List all six authors in the reference.
- More than six authors
McGlynn, E. A., Asch, S. M., Adams, J., Keesey, J., Hicks, J., DeCristofaro, A., et al. (2003). The quality of - health care delivered to adults in the United States. New England Journal of Medicine, 348, 2635-2645.
Citation: (McGlynn et al., 2003). APA style lists the first six authors to a work in a reference, then adds
et al. (and others) if there are more. There is no ampersand (&) after the author, as
et al. carries the same meaning, and no comma. The citation gives just the lead author.
- Group author
Hypericum Depression Trial Study Group. (2002a). Effect of Hypericum perforatum (St John's Wort) in major - depressive disorder: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 287, 1807–1814.
Citation: (Hypericum Depression Trial Study Group, 2002). The APA Manual requires citing the full name
of a corporate author like this; the acronym would not be easily recognized. However, shortening the author
to "Hypericum Depression Trial" in subsequent citations would probably be acceptable to editors of APA journals.
- Electronic facsimile (PDF)
Hypericum Depression Trial Study Group. (2002b). Effect of Hypericum perforatum (St John's Wort) in
major - depressive disorder: A randomized controlled trial [Electronic version]. JAMA, 287, 1807–1814.
Note: Many documents are now available online as exact facsimile copies of the print original (usually in
Adobe's PDF format). References to these facsimiles just add the note [Electronic version] to the reference.
If the document is not an exact copy of a print version--"(e.g., the format differs from the print version or page
numbers are not indicated)"--add the date you retrieved the document and the URL to the reference
(APA, 2001, p. 271). See below.
- Journal article, changed/doubtful source
Hypericum Depression Trial Study Group. (2002c). Effect of Hypericum perforatum (St John's Wort) in
major - depressive disorder: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 287, 1807–1814. Retrieved July 7,
2002, from
http://www.jama.org/articles.html
- Journal article, retrieved from a database
Hypericum Depression Trial Study Group. (2002d). Effect of Hypericum perforatum (St John's Wort) in major - depressive disorder: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 287, 1807–1814. Retrieved July 7,
2002, from
MEDSYS database.
- Online journal (paged by issue)
Barry, J. M. (2004, January 20). The site of origin of the 1918 influenza pandemic and its public health
implications - [Commentary]. Journal of Translational Medicine, 2(3), 1-4. Retrieved November 18,
2005, from
http://www.translational-medicine.com/content/2/1/3
Citation: (Barry, 2004). Note: There is no period after the URL in a reference.
When quoting or citing a document, a page number or other means of identifying a specific passage is required.
In the absence of page numbers, if paragraph numbers appear in an electronic document, add the paragraph
symbol or the abbreviation para. and the paragraph number to the citation (e.g., Barry, 2004, ¶ 17). If there
is no paragraph number, cite the nearest preceding section heading and count paragraphs from there
(e.g., Barry, 2004, Discussion section, para. 4).
- Paged by issue
Conway, L. G., III. (2001). Number and age of citations in social-personality psychology over the
lifespan of the - field: Older and wiser? Dialogue, 16(2), 14-15.
Note: Some research journals are paged by issue, that is, each issue begins at page one. Add the number
in the volume (in parentheses in plain text) to these references immediately after the volume number.
- Newspapers & Magazines (Contents)
Newspaper
Rundle, R. (2002, May 1). Obesity’s hidden costs. Wall Street Journal, pp. B1-B4.
- Citation: (Rundle, 2002). The date of publication is cited for newspapers and magazines; no volume
number is cited; the abbreviation pp. precedes page numbers in references to newspapers only!
- Book review
Camhi, L. (1999, June 15). Art of the city [Review of the book New York modern: The arts and the city].
- Village Voice, p. 154.
- Letter to the editor
O'Neill, G. W. (1992, January). In support of DSM-III [Letter to the editor]. APA Monitor, 4-5.
Magazine article
Gardner, H. (1991, December). Do babies sing a universal song? Psychology Today, 70-76.
Newsletter
Brown, L. S. (1993, Spring). My research with orangs. The Psychology Department Newsletter, 3, 2.
- Newspaper article online
Bradsher, K. (2005, November 3). Poverty and superstition hinder drive to block bird flu at source.
- New York Times. Retrieved November 3, 2005, from http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/03/international/
asia/03bird.html?th&emc=th
Note: For anonymous newspaper articles see the section on "Anonymous or unknown authors."
- Papers & Web Pages (Contents)
Brochure or pamphlet
Research and Training Center on Independent Living. (1993). Guidelines for reporting and writing about people - with disabilities [Brochure]. (4th ed.). Lawrence, KS: Author.
A note is added in square brackets to indicate the type of document if it is not a common source.
- Conference paper (unpublished)
Churchland, P. S. (1998, March). Ten unsolved problems in neuroscience. Paper presented at the Science
- of Mind Distinguished Lecture Series, University of California, Davis.
- Shrout, P. E. (Chair), Hunter, J. E., Harris, R. J., Wilkinson, L., Strouss, M. E., Applebaum, M. I., et al.
- (1996, August). Significance tests—Should they be banned from APA journals? Symposium conducted
at the 104th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada.
Citation: (Shrout et al., 1996). APA references list up to the first six authors to a work. If there are more add
et al. (and others) to the list of names. In text citations give just the lead author, et al. A published
paper
is referenced as a chapter in a book.
- Dissertation or thesis
King, L. (1994). Modern literary apparitions and their mind-altering effects.
Unpublished master’s thesis, - Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL.
- Web pages
Department of Health and Human Services, Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. (n.d.). St. John's Wort - and the treatment of depression. Retrieved January 19, 2003, from National
Institutes of Health Web site:
http://nccam.nih.gov/health/stjohnswort/
- Dr. Abel Scribe PhD. (2006, October). Dr. Abel Scribe's guides to research writing and style.
Retrieved October 31,
- 2006, from http://www.docstyles.com/index.htm
- Homeland Security Council. (2005, November 1). National strategy for pandemic influenza
[Monograph]. Washington,
- DC: The Whitehouse. Retrieved November 2, 2005, from
http://www.whitehouse.gov/homeland/pandemic-influenza.html
- Purdue University Online Writing Lab. (2003). Using American Psychological Association (APA)
format (Updated to
- 5th edition). Purdue University Online Writing Lab. Retrieved February 18, 2003,
from
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/research/r_apa.html
References to Web pages are formatted like references to books or reports: The title is set in italics.
There is no period after the URL!
Contents
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APA Quick Study. The APA Crib Sheet covers the details of APA style. The APA Quick Study examines underlying rules to documentation and highlights essential features that are trademarks of the style. This is the short course to using APA style.
